November 2005 • Volume 37 • Number 2 • Pages 10-14

Making Instruction Relevant to Language Minority Students at the Middle Level

Carla C. Johnson

The population of the United States continues to become increasingly diverse, both culturally and linguistically (National Center for Education Statistics, 1999). For the past two decades, the majority of immigrants have been from Mexico and are native Spanish speakers (Garcia, 2002). The increased diversity creates a challenge for middle school teachers as they are required not only to teach their content areas, but also to assist students learning English, including literacy skills. The majority of teachers at all levels of experience are novices at teaching a second language in the context of subject matter (Stoddart, Pinal, Latzke, & Canaday, 2002). Many school districts have responded to the growth of the English Language Learner (ELL) population by adding pull-out English as a Second Language classes meeting separate from their content area classes only once or twice per week. These pull-out classes are only a temporary solution to a growing problem and do not enable students to learn language in the context of their content areas.

At the middle level, teachers daily face many challenges in delivering instruction and enabling student learning. Young adolescents are undergoing a transformation from elementary school where they had one teacher to middle school where they may have five or six classes with different teachers each day. Organization is also key, and many students are still learning skills needed to become independent. However, for a student who is placed in this environment without an extensive knowledge of the English language and the ability to communicate with peers and teachers, it is a much more difficult time.

Achievement Gap

Language minority students in the United States are significantly behind their native English-speaking peers in academic progress and this is a cause for concern (Stoddart, Pinal, Latzke, & Canaday, 2002). Nearly 40% of middle school Latino students are performing below grade level and Latino high school drop-out rates are two to three times that of white students (Garcia, 2002). Even in successful school districts, it can take three to seven years for oral proficiency in English and four to eight years for academic English for an ELL student. It is vital for middle level teachers to play a key role in developing not only ELL students' content knowledge, but also their English language literacy.

In science, the achievement gap between Latino students with limited proficiency and native English speakers is on average 20 points, according to the 2000 National Association for Educational Progress report. One contributing factor to this gap is traditional science instruction in the United States, which typically favors middle-class, English-speaking, Anglo-Americans (Gibbons, 2003). As a result, Latino students who do not see a cultural, language, or interactional connection are at an educational disadvantage in these classrooms (Gibbons, 2003).

Achievement gaps in science have long existed between students of differing genders, cultures, ethnicities, and socio-economic backgrounds. There have been many initiatives to address these gaps, with varied levels of success (Loucks-Horsely, Hewson, Love, & Stiles, 1998). As stakeholders search to find a solution, many students slip through the system and either obtain a minimal knowledge level or drop out of school (Garcia, 2002). This is a critical problem for science teachers who are struggling to meet the needs of all of their students, especially ELLs trying to learn science content, learn the English language, and develop literacy simultaneously (Lee & Fradd, 2001).

Instructional Congruence

One instructional strategy that has been used with success in middle level science is the instructional congruence model. Instructional congruence occurs when "teachers mediate the nature of academic content and inquiry with language and cultural experiences of diverse students" (Lee & Fradd, 2001). According to this model, for teachers to provide effective science and literacy instruction they must integrate knowledge of (a) students' language and cultural experiences, (b) science learning, and (c) literacy development (Lee & Fradd, 2001, Lee, 2004). The components of the instructional congruence model include: helping students learn science concepts and vocabulary, engaging students in science investigations cooperatively, developing science-related thinking skills, and encouraging students to talk about science with other students, their parents, and their teachers (Lee, 2004). This model can be very successful at the middle school level, due to the environment of support and belonging that middle schools provide.

In teaching science and literacy for linguistically diverse students, instructional congruence includes four components: students, teachers, science, and literacy. Through instructional congruence, teachers make academic content and inquiry accessible, meaningful, and relevant for diverse students.

To provide effective science and literacy instruction for these students, teachers need to integrate their knowledge of:

1. The students' language and cultural experiences.
   
2. Science learning.
   
3. Literacy development.

This may be an area where teachers would need support up front to better prepare themselves before instruction. Typical teacher preparation programs do not prepare middle school teachers to teach both science and literacy, unless the teacher chooses those two particular emphasis areas. This is where the school and district can play a key role in supporting teachers by providing professional development resources to enable teachers to effectively implement the needed instruction.

Instructional congruence depends on the interaction of four important factors. First, teachers must integrate knowledge of students' languages and cultures with the nature of science. No longer are teachers teaching all students as if they are the same. Teachers spend time learning about their students, their cultures, and their language to make the instruction more relevant for the students. The teacher can accomplish this by interacting with the students and their families in informal settings, such as during science night or home visits. Home visits are becoming more commonplace with students from other countries. This approach from multicultural education research is called the "Funds of Knowledge" approach in which the teacher gains valuable insight into what types of informal learning take place at home through interaction with family members. Then the teacher can modify instruction to include more pieces of the students' native culture in the learning of content matter.

The second factor emphasizes the need to give equal emphasis to the nature of academic content knowledge and inquiry and issues of language and culture. For language minority students, the teacher must teach the subject matter in a context that the student can relate to and that is accessible to the student. Therefore, the "science" teacher is not only a teacher of science, but also a teacher of language and culture and should not just focus his or her efforts on "American" culture and the English language. Student interactions in the classroom are greatly influenced when the non-minority students can learn more about the language minority students and their cultures, experiences, and values. Through the use of instructional congruence, the teacher works to give equal treatment to the academic subject matter and the students' languages and cultures. This is not meant to be in the form of a "mini-unit" on Aztec calendars, but a conscious effort to include components of language and culture on a regular basis.

The third factor relating to instructional congruence is the promotion of student learning in both science and literacy. These are closely related as students develop academic discourse required to meet academic standards. No longer does the teacher just focus on one content area, such as science. Now the focus is the interrelationship of science and literacy in English. In the classroom you would see much more writing about science, students engaged in discourse about what they are learning, sharing different cultural experiences, and reading as a means to not only gather data, but to also sharpen comprehension skills. The science teacher is now also a teacher of literacy. Students learn literacy skills in the context of science content. The combination of science and literacy results in more practice and experience for students learning English. A deeper understanding of science also results from the increased communication and reflection upon what was learned.

The fourth factor is putting constructivism at the core of instructional congruence. Students form their own meanings and understandings through interactions with their environment. In their environment students interact daily with other students, the teacher, family, and objects/phenomena in the classroom and world. It is important to remember that as young adolescents construct their understandings, these interactions are critical and must be as rich and relevant as possible. It is the teachers' role to ensure that students are engaged in experiences that meet these criteria, so the use of as many hands-on investigations as possible should be the goal to enable students to interact with their environment. Teachers should include examples and resources that not only reflect experiences of students native to the U.S., but also for their students from other cultures. Bringing in picture books (see Brame, 2000; Wood & Tinajero, 2002) and other literature is a great way to help both student groups learn from each other. Students can also bring in items from home to share with the class on a regular basis, especially when there is a current event that relates to things discussed in class. Students take an active part in the learning process through the use of constructivism, as the role of the teacher shifts from knowledge giver to facilitator of knowledge gained and constructed by students, thus creating a more meaningful learning experience for all.

The instructional congruence framework considers science and literacy broadly, as defined in the National Science Education Standards, (National Research Council, 1996). The major components of science learning according to the instructional congruence model include:

1. Key science concepts as well as big ideas such as patterns of change, systems, models, and relationships (knowing).
   
2. Science inquiry emphasizing students' asking questions and finding answers (doing).
   
3. Science discourse and multiple representations using various written and oral communication formats (talking).
   
4. Scientific habits of mind including the values, attitudes, and world views in science.

Most states have come on board and have aligned their state standards, in part or whole, with the National Science Education Standards (NSES). These standards should be in place; but again, teachers must have the skills and desire to implement them effectively. In addition to the key science concepts or "content" that science teachers have been teaching for years, the NSES places an equal emphasis on students "doing" science—being engaged in science investigations relating to their own questions about the world. The NSES and instructional congruence framework also emphasizes having students "talk" about science. This means the teacher must plan time to have students engaged in discourse, both during the investigation and at the end. Too many times science teachers believe that the end of the investigation is the end of learning, and when that class period is over, the findings are not discussed again. This is not the case for a practicing scientist who continues to learn and report findings to further their study and research.

The final component of science learning is teaching the students to practice scientific habits of mind. Asking questions about the world and thinking "like a scientist" are things that students should be doing, both in the classroom and on their own in informal settings.

Literacy development is based on standards for students learning English from the three key organizations in this area: The National Council of Teachers of English, The Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, and the American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages. Literacy development includes both social and academic discourse in formal and informal settings such as:

1. Social language is characterized as interpersonal and dependent on the culture of the communication, such as tone of voice, facial expressions, body movements, turn taking, and other aspects of interactional styles.
   
2. Academic language is characterized as linguistically complex and cognitively demanding. Academic language is also characterized as the language of school instruction where understanding depends on knowledge of academic content and genre.

It is critical that teachers provide opportunities for students to use both social and academic language in the classroom setting. When social language is used, teachers should observe non-verbal communication as well as verbal so that they have a better understanding of what is going on with their students. One obstacle in teaching students from different cultures is the difference in ways of interacting with authority figures. Some students believe they should not question authority, which makes it difficult to engage inquiry. Through discourse, not only are students learning how to build these relationships in a safe environment, but also they are continuously sharpening literacy skills and developing increasingly improved language skills.

Signs of Success

Use of the instructional congruence model has been found to increase Latino students' learning of science. For example, Lee and Fradd (2001) found that during their three-year study, student science learning increased each year on pre- and post-unit test mean scores, with mean scores doubling. This model enables Latino students to include meaningful personal experiences and share in the process of making science more meaningful and relevant to them.

The instructional congruence framework is consistent with the National Science Education Standards (NSES) emphasis on the need to learn science concepts, undertake inquiry, engage in discourse, and provoke scientific thoughts (National Research Council, 1996). Implementation of standards-based instruction (NSES) in classrooms has been identified in previous research as having a positive impact on student learning and attitudes toward science.

Although the instructional congruence model has been used for only a few years, there are signs of success in that it can enable teachers to make science learning more culturally relevant and powerful for students, along with teaching literacy and language skills in context. In the next section, a detailed description of implementation of the model will be discussed.

Interdisciplinary Application

I have used the instructional congruence model at the middle level through the use of problem-based learning (PBL) interdisciplinary units. Students are engaged with a real-world problem that applies to all, and they share their experiences and knowledge to come up with a solution to the problem. Student discourse is a key component of using PBL, and through their interactions with the problem and the data they collect, they ask their own questions and work collaboratively.

The PBL unit that I used with instructional congruence was on bioterrorism in the wake of the 9/11 tragedy and the threat of Anthrax and SARS. Students in my seventh grade class from many cultural backgrounds were affected by one or both of these events. Several students had family members or friends that worked in the World Trade Center. I began the unit by finding out how much students knew about infectious and noninfectious diseases. The contributions of students varied based upon their backgrounds, and each enriched the other. For instance, many students who had lived their entire lives in the U.S. were not familiar with water borne illnesses that students from Mexico and other South American countries were aware of. Students shared experiences with diseases in their native countries and stories of family members who had suffered from illnesses and how it had affected their lives. Following the discussion, students worked cooperatively in groups to research and become experts on 20 diseases, five per group. Intense conversations took place during the research and writing time. Students added to data found through their sources with personal examples of family members with heart disease, Cholera, and other diseases. Each group authored pages of the "student disease handbook" that was collectively created by all of my science students that semester. Students took pride in their work and "autographed" the cover. Their handbook included words in English and Spanish, along with pictures from the Internet that reflected populations from many countries. The handbook pages were a collaborative project between social studies, science and language arts, however, literacy skills were a focus in all classrooms. In social studies they learned about the quality of life in many different countries and conditions that related to the health issues in those areas. In language arts the teacher focused on technical writing skills, and in science we conducted the research and composed the handbook pages. Through the use of the interdisciplinary approach, students spent most of the day discussing their project across classrooms, thus allowing for "construction" of their understandings across many settings, which often carried over into after-school activities. As a homework assignment students were asked to interview a family member about the medical history of the family. Students came in each morning with stories from home to share. This assignment allowed students from different cultures to see, again, the many things they do have in common as they shared their history with the class.

The culminating event was a simulated biohazard contamination, which was possible due to our school providing teams control of their own flexible schedules, giving us a 75 minute block of time. A local environmental abatement contractor donated the "containment" and set it up for us. Students came to school and were asked to dress in biohazard suits and enter the room to examine the scenarios and evidence to determine what disease was present. Students worked in groups to discover the source and identification of the disease and presented their findings in both written and oral communication to the class. Through their investigations they focused again on literacy skills, reading the compiled disease handbook, engaging in discourse with their groups during and after the investigation, learning new science concepts, and engaging in scientific habits of mind. Students explored simulated food borne, water borne, and air borne illnesses including Cholera, Anthrax, and E-coli. At the end of the investigation, students had a much more detailed and culturally relevant picture of disease and had formed extensive background knowledge that would not have been possible through traditional textbook activities (Johnson, 2003).

Middle Level Potential

The instructional congruence model can be applied to areas other than just science. Instruction in the middle school includes teaming experiences that build relationships among peers as well as between students and teachers. Students are able to see connections between content areas through interdisciplinary units. The instructional congruence model can be very powerful if used in either a disciplinary or interdisciplinary learning environment where language minority students can experience instruction tailored to incorporate their cultural and personal experiences, making learning more meaningful to them. Student learning of content and English language can be enriched and the middle level learning environment more inviting and natural to all students.

References

Brame, P. B. (2000). Using picture storybooks to enhance social skills training of special needs students. Middle School Journal, 32(1), 41-46.

Gibbons, B. A. (2003). Supporting elementary science education for English learners: A constructivist evaluation instrument. The Journal of Educational Research, 96(6), 371-380.

Johnson, C. J. (2003, November) Bioterrorism is real-world science: Inquiry-based simulation mirrors real life. Science Scope, 27(3), 19-23.

Lee, O. (2004). Teacher change in beliefs and practices in science and literacy instruction with English Language Learners. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 41(1), 65-93.

Lee, O., & Fradd, S. H. (2001) Instructional congruence to promote science learning and literacy development for linguistically diverse students. In D. R. Lavoie & W. M. Roth (Eds.), Models of science teacher preparation (pp. 109-126). AA Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Loucks-Horsley, S., Hewson, P., Love, N., & Stiles, K. (1998) Designing professional development for teachers of mathematics and science. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

National Center for Education Statistics. (1999) The condition of education. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

National Research Council. (1996). National science education standards. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Stoddart, T., Pinal, A., Latzke, M., & Canaday, D. (2002). Integrating inquiry science and language development for English Language Learners. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 39, 664-687.

Wood, K. D., & Tinajero, J. (2002). Using picture storybooks to teach content to second language learners. Middle School Journal, 33(5), 47-51.

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